The stapes is then attached to the inner ear, where the sound waves will be transduced into a neural signal. Sensation is the activation of sensory receptor cells at the level of the stimulus. The Eustachian (or auditory) tube connects the middle ear cavity to the pharynx (it is an evolutionary descendant of pharyngeal pouches). The exact position of the head is interpreted by the brain based on the pattern of hair-cell depolarization. Light touch is transduced by the encapsulated endings known as tactile (Meissner) corpuscles. mucous membrane that lines the anterior surface of the eye and the posterior surface of the eyelid. _______________, Are your eyes exactly the same? The motor nuclei of these cranial nerves connect to the brain stem, which coordinates eye movements. The axons of RGCs, which lie at the innermost layer of the retina, collect at the optic disc and leave the eye as the optic nerve (see Figure 14.15). Not surprisingly, dishes that contain meat are often described as savory. welcome to Ms. stephens' anatomy and Physiology and Environmental . The difference in inertia between the hair cell stereocilia and the otolithic membrane in which they are embedded leads to a shearing force that causes the stereocilia to bend in the direction of that linear acceleration. Most auditory stimuli contain a mixture of sounds at a variety of frequencies and intensities (represented by the amplitude of the sound wave). This page titled Lab 5: Sensory Systems is shared under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by Susan Burran and David DesRochers (GALILEO Open Learning Materials) via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request. There is more variability among individuals than accounted for by the original 1942 map (not shown, intentionally). https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/1-introduction, https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-1-sensory-perception, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Dermis, cornea, tongue, joint capsules, visceral organs, Pain, temperature, mechanical deformation, Epidermaldermal junction, mucosal membranes, Papillary dermis, especially in the fingertips and lips, Deep pressure, high-frequency vibration (around 250 Hz), Wrapped around hair follicles in the dermis, Describe different types of sensory receptors, Describe the structures responsible for the special senses of taste, smell, hearing, balance, and vision, Distinguish how different tastes are transduced, Describe the means of mechanoreception for hearing and balance, List the supporting structures around the eye and describe the structure of the eyeball, Describe the processes of phototransduction. Serial solutions can be applied with cotton swabs to the subject's tongue to test for sensitivity. These receptors are G proteincoupled, and will produce a graded membrane potential in the olfactory neurons. Loss of the sense of smell can result in food tasting bland. This molecule is referred to as 11-cis-retinal. The wall of the eye is composed of three layers: the fibrous tunic, vascular tunic, and neural tunic. When you eat something salty, the salt crystals dissociate into the component ions Na+ and Cl, which dissolve into the saliva in your mouth. The tube is normally closed but will pop open when the muscles of the pharynx contract during swallowing or yawning. In skeletal muscle tissue, these stretch receptors are called muscle spindles. Before interacting with a photon, retinals flexible double-bonded carbons are in the cis conformation. When the stereocilia bend toward the shortest member of their array, the tension on the tethers slackens and the ion channels close. The movement of two canals within a plane results in information about the direction in which the head is moving, and activation of all six canals can give a very precise indication of head movement in three dimensions. Hearing, or audition, is the transduction of sound waves into a neural signal that is made possible by the structures of the ear (Figure 14.5). Rhodopsin, the photopigment in rods, is most sensitive to light at a wavelength of 498 nm. Taste involves stimulation of receptor proteins on gustatory cells within taste buds. The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. The anterior and posterior vertical canals are oriented at approximately 45 degrees relative to the sagittal plane (Figure 14.12). Sucrose and NaCl are common tests for sweet and salty. Receptors, Sensation, and Perception Sensory receptors Specialized cells or multicellular structures that collect information from the environment Stimulate neurons to send impulses along sensory fibers to the brain Sensation A feeling that occurs when brain becomes aware of sensory impulse Perception A person's view of the For example, the general sense of touch, which is known as somatosensation, can be separated into light pressure, deep pressure, vibration, itch, pain, temperature, or hair movement. From there, the axons split to travel to several brain regions. The eye is also divided into two cavities: the anterior cavity and the posterior cavity. Watch this animation to learn more about the inner ear and to see the cochlea unroll, with the base at the back of the image and the apex at the front. If you differ, then provide a possible explanation as to why: This lab has been adapted from Rice University and is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License License (3.0). Therefore, our low-light vision isin essencein grayscale. 6.3: Somatosensation As the spinal nerve nears the spinal cord, it splits into dorsal and ventral roots. The incus, in turn, articulates with the stapes. The first two tastes (salty and sour) are triggered by the cations Na+ and H+. The complexity of the pressure waves is determined by the changes in amplitude and frequency of the sound waves entering the ear. Connections between the body and the CNS occur through the spinal cord. As the head rotates in a plane parallel to the semicircular canal, the fluid lags, deflecting the cupula in the direction opposite to the head movement. Some other organisms have receptors that humans lack, such as the heat sensors of snakes, the ultraviolet light sensors of bees, or magnetic receptors in migratory birds. The inner ear is often described as a bony labyrinth, as it is composed of a series of canals embedded within the temporal bone. The stereocilia extend up from the hair cells to the overlying tectorial membrane, which is attached medially to the organ of Corti. The eyelids, with lashes at their leading edges, help to protect the eye from abrasions by blocking particles that may land on the surface of the eye. The iris constricts the pupil in response to bright light and dilates the pupil in response to dim light. Check with your instructor to determine which way they want you to cut the eye in half. Physiology concerns the functions of body partswhat they are and what they do. The posterior cavity is the space behind the lens that extends to the posterior side of the interior eyeball, where the retina is located. The large, fleshy structure on the lateral aspect of the head is known as the auricle. _______________ Right eye? Visible light only occupies a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The images in your peripheral vision are focused by the peripheral retina, and have vague, blurry edges and words that are not as clearly identified. The center of the retina has a small indentation known as the fovea. Within the neural tunic is the retina, with three layers of cells and two synaptic layers in between. Merkel cells are located in the stratum basale of the epidermis. For example, when the superior rectus contracts, the eye rotates to look up. The cells in the retina that respond to light stimuli are an example of a specialized receptor, a photoreceptor. Each of the senses is referred to as a sensory modality. Write your acuity here: ____________________. Body parts form a well-organized unitthe human organism. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School 2012), (a) The olfactory system begins in the peripheral structures of the nasal cavity. Because these axons pass through the retina, there are no photoreceptors at the very back of the eye, where the optic nerve begins. The fluid-filled tube, now called the scala tympani, returns to the base of the cochlea, this time travelling under the cochlear duct. List the positions for localization from most to least accurate: Describe any differences in relation to the sensory input required to maintain balance. These new axons grow along the axons that are already in place in the cranial nerve. In this example, the ON-center cell will send a maximum rate of action potentials along its axon (in the optic nerve) to the brain if the brightest light is striking photoreceptors near the center of its portion of the retina and the surrounding photoreceptors in that portion are receiving minimal light. The eye can focus light images on the retina using the cornea and the lens. Professional fighters often experience anosmia because of repeated trauma to face and head. The scala tympani ends at the round window, which is covered by a membrane that contains the fluid within the scala. Have your partner stand near the chart and tell you which line to read starting from the top. At the end of the auditory canal is the tympanic membrane, or ear drum, which vibrates after it is struck by sound waves. Want to cite, share, or modify this book? By comparing the relative movements of both the horizontal and vertical ampullae, the vestibular system can detect the direction of most head movements within three-dimensional (3-D) space. The otolithic membrane moves separately from the macula in response to head movements. A single unit of light is called a photon, which is described in physics as a packet of energy with properties of both a particle and a wave. Activation of retinal and the opsin proteins result in activation of a G protein. Until recently, only four tastes were recognized: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. The oval window is located at the beginning of a fluid-filled tube within the cochlea called the scala vestibuli. This is how Dr. Reed is able to visualize and count papillae on the surface of the tongue. The general senses of somatosensation for the face travel through the trigeminal system. The semicircular canals contain several ampullae, with some oriented horizontally and others oriented vertically. By comparing the activity of the three different cones, the brain can extract color information from visual stimuli. Increasing hydrogen ion concentrations in the saliva (lowering saliva pH) triggers progressively stronger graded potentials in the gustatory cells. The stereocilia of the hair cells extend into a viscous gel called the otolithic membrane (Figure 14.11). Can you explain any differences? These two modalities use thermoreceptors and nociceptors to transduce temperature and pain stimuli, respectively. Other monosaccharides such as fructose, or artificial sweeteners such as aspartame (NutraSweet), saccharine, or sucralose (Splenda) also activate the sweet receptors. Visual acuity refers to the sharpness or clarity of vision and is an indication of the focusing capacities of your eyes, especially the lens and cornea. The superior oblique originates at the posterior orbit, near the origin of the four rectus muscles. These ganglia are located within the spiral-shaped cochlea of the inner ear. Some stimuli are physical variations in the environment that affect receptor cell membrane potentials. Because of this, it will decrease the ability of other stimuli to elicit pain sensations through the activated nociceptor. Other somatosensory receptors are found in the joints and muscles. Other species and artificial technologies can detect other parts of this energy spectrum. The stereocilia are an array of microvilli-like structures arranged from tallest to shortest. The shape change of retinal in the photoreceptors initiates visual transduction in the retina. They can also be classified functionally on the basis of the transduction of stimuli, or how the mechanical stimulus, light, or chemical changed the cell membrane potential. 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Head position is sensed by the utricle and saccule, whereas head movement is sensed by the semicircular canals. The middle ear consists of a space spanned by three small bones called the ossicles. Chemical stimuli can be interpreted by a chemoreceptor that interprets chemical stimuli, such as an objects taste or smell. The video makes the statement (at 0:45) that specialized cells in the retina called ganglion cells convert the light rays into electrical signals. What aspect of retinal processing is simplified by that statement? A sound wave causes the tympanic membrane to vibrate. Visible light is electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength between 380 and 720 nm. Just as with sodium ions in salty flavors, these hydrogen ions enter the cell and trigger depolarization. The three major spaces within the cochlea are highlighted. Students can then test for sensitivities for each by starting with a series at the low end of the concentrations. They preferentially absorb light at different wavelengths, shown in the figure below. Concentration 1: ______________ Concentration 2: ______________ Concentration 3: ______________ Concentration 4: ______________ Concentration 5: ______________. Olfactory signals are the only sensory system to send signals directly to the limbic system, which is integral to memory and emotional functions. Such stretch receptors can also prevent over-contraction of a muscle. By the end of this section, you will be able to: A major role of sensory receptors is to help us learn about the environment around us, or about the state of our internal environment. For humans, the only electromagnetic energy that is perceived by our eyes is visible light. Lower frequency waves move the region of the basilar membrane that is near the tip of the cochlea. Below, list the micromolar concentrations of mint and circle the one where you can begin to smell the mint. Another physical stimulus that has its own type of receptor is temperature, which is sensed through a thermoreceptor that is either sensitive to temperatures above (heat) or below (cold) normal body temperature. These nerve endings detect the movement of hair at the surface of the skin, such as when an insect may be walking along the skin. The board should be marked at approximately shoulder height with centimeter units covering ~1 meter. LM 812. Specific molecules (odorants) bind to receptor proteins and activate neural electrical signals (action potentials). Sensory system is a functional system of neurons which enables perception of external or internal environment changes, Conduction of impulse to CNS, its analyses, formation of sensation ; 3 departments of analyser Peripherial (receptors) Conducting pathways Central (sensory cortex) ; Functions of peripheral department Coding of information Primary analyses 3 285-296 doi: 10.1083/jcb.201003144). Some stimuli are ions and macromolecules that affect transmembrane receptor proteins when these chemicals diffuse across the cell membrane. PTC tasting test kits provide material to survey the class. All other colors fall between red and blue at various points along the wavelength scale. Comparison of Color Sensitivity of Photopigments. and you must attribute OpenStax. Osmoreceptors respond to solute concentrations of body fluids. The cells that interpret information about the environment can be either (1) a neuron that has a free nerve ending, with dendrites embedded in tissue that would receive a sensation; (2) a neuron that has an encapsulated ending in which the sensory nerve endings are encapsulated in connective tissue that enhances their sensitivity; or (3) a specialized receptor cell, which has distinct structural components that interpret a specific type of stimulus (Figure 14.2). You will work in groups of two or three to dissect an eye. Distinguish between anatomy and physiology, and identify several branches of each Describe the structure of the body, from simplest to most complex, in terms of the six levels of organization Identify the functional characteristics of human life Identify the four requirements for human survival Neurotransmitters from the gustatory cells can activate sensory neurons in the facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus cranial nerves. Sensory systems include organs, tissues, and cells that receive stimuli from the environment and send this information to the brain for processing. Have the subject stand and stare straight ahead for 2 minutes, and note the range of movement. Somatosensation is the group of sensory modalities that are associated with touch, proprioception, and interoception. Pressure, vibration, muscle stretch, and the movement of hair by an external stimulus, are all sensed by mechanoreceptors. For the sake of convenience, we will use the terms ventral and dorsal in reference to structures within the spinal cord that are part of these pathways. This creates a blind spot in the retina, and a corresponding blind spot in our visual field. The neural signals generated in the vestibular ganglion are transmitted through the vestibulocochlear nerve to the brain stem and cerebellum. This complexity allows you to be aware of your surroundings and take appropriate actions. In normal sunlight, rhodopsin will be constantly bleached while the cones are active. Humans have five special senses: olfaction (smell), gustation (taste), equilibrium (balance and body position), vision, and hearing. In a darkened room, there is not enough light to activate cone opsins, and vision is entirely dependent on rods. Alkaloids are nitrogen containing molecules that are commonly found in bitter-tasting plant products, such as coffee, hops (in beer), tannins (in wine), tea, and aspirin. The superior oblique is innervated by the trochlear nerve. This process is called photoisomerization. Many internal structures are delicate and tear easily such as the retina. The eye is located within the orbit and surrounded by soft tissues that protect and support its function. The basilar membrane is the thin membrane that extends from the central core of the cochlea to the edge. Specific wavelengths of sound cause specific regions of the basilar membrane to vibrate, much like the keys of a piano produce sound at different frequencies. Temperature receptors are stimulated when local temperatures differ from body temperature. Gustation is the special sense associated with the tongue. Others project to structures within the limbic system and hypothalamus, where smells become associated with long-term memory and emotional responses. An important distinction to consider is how humans can functionally separate sensation (activation of the different receptors) as compared to perception (the conscious awareness of the sensation). Typically, spinal nerve systems that connect to the brain are contralateral, in that the right side of the body is connected to the left side of the brain and the left side of the body to the right side of the brain. The pain and temperature receptors in the dermis of the skin are examples of neurons that have free nerve endings. Dr. Reed discovered that she is a non-taster, which explains why she perceived bitterness differently than other people she knew. There, amacrine cells additionally contribute to retinal processing before an action potential is produced by the RGC. sight, touch, hearing, taste, smell. There are several ways to slice through an eye. (b) Tissue of the retina shows a dense layer of nuclei of the rods and cones. Some of the branches will synapse with local neurons in the dorsal root ganglion, posterior (dorsal) horn, or even the anterior (ventral) horn, at the level of the spinal cord where they enter. These two structures bend the lens, allowing it to focus light on the back of the eye. One is oriented in the horizontal plane, whereas the other two are oriented in the vertical plane. The neurons can then communicate with other neurons in the nervous system via synapses and networks to coordinate responses. The tendon inserts obliquely into the superior surface of the eye. Can you see any similarities among the members of your family? Bulbous corpuscles are also present in joint capsules, where they measure stretch in the components of the skeletal system within the joint. To use the chart, find the red tape on the floor. As airborne molecules are inhaled through the nose, they pass over the olfactory epithelial region and dissolve into the mucus. You will have to identify these structures using both the sheep or cow eye and the models. Anosmia may also be related to some presentations of mild depression, because the loss of enjoyment of food may lead to a general sense of despair. However, there are a number of different ways in which this can happen because there are a large diversity of bitter-tasting molecules. Light passes through the eyeball via the cornea, pupil, and lens. Use a microscope to explore the cellular aspect of a taste bud. You are responsible for identifying these major anatomical structures of the eye: sclera (tough, outer layer), choroid (dark, middle layer), pigmented epithelium, fovea, vitreous humor, aqueous humor, iris, lens, ciliary body, cornea, conjunctiva, optic nerve, blind spot (or optic disc), retina (thin, and pale inner layer). For example, a bright blue light that has a wavelength of approximately 450 nm would activate the red cones minimally, the green cones marginally, and the blue cones predominantly. Higher frequency waves move the region of the basilar membrane that is close to the base of the cochlea. Stretching of the skin is transduced by stretch receptors known as bulbous corpuscles. The malleus is attached to the tympanic membrane and articulates with the incus. If you have missed laboratory or class; complete the makeup work below. citation tool such as, Authors: J. Gordon Betts, Kelly A. Mechanical, chemical, or thermal stimuli beyond a set threshold will elicit painful sensations. Patterns of signals are integrated in the cerebellum and parietal cortex. Until the retinal molecule is changed back to the 11-cis-retinal shape, the opsin cannot respond to light energy, which is called bleaching. Sour flavors are, essentially, the perception of acids in our food. 190 no. Photoreceptors in the eyes, such as rod cells, are examples of (c) specialized receptor cells. sodium ions), Various neurons that respond to physical movements, Neurons responding to stretch and contraction of muscles & tendons. Free Nerve Endings Direct stimulation of sensory neurons the sensory neuron is also the receptor dendrites of sensory neurons 1. The C-shaped curves of the auricle direct sound waves toward the auditory canal. All of our muscles and organs depen. Read back a little to see if you can figure it out. Rod outer segments are long columnar shapes with stacks of membrane-bound discs that contain the rhodopsin pigment. When the eye looks up or down, the eye must also rotate slightly to compensate for the superior rectus pulling at approximately a 20-degree angle, rather than straight up. Hearing involves the signal transduction of mechanical waves into neural signals in the cochlea, within the inner ear. The otoliths essentially make the otolithic membrane top-heavy. Such low frequency vibrations are sensed by mechanoreceptors called Merkel cells, also known as type I cutaneous mechanoreceptors. The angle of the tendon through the trochlea means that contraction of the superior oblique rotates the eye laterally. The same is true for the inferior rectus, which is compensated by contraction of the inferior oblique. Within the realm of physiology, senses can be classified as either general or specific. If you answered YES!, then you have the dominant genotype for the PTC gene! Toward the edges of the retina, several photoreceptors converge on RGCs (through the bipolar cells) up to a ratio of 50 to 1. In this lab, we will explore the anatomy & physiology used for interpreting the environment both within and outside our bodies.
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